Journal of Psychosomatic Research
Volume 67, Issue 6 , Pages 525-532 , December 2009

Tourette syndrome in children and adolescents: Special considerations

  • Valsamma Eapen

      Affiliations

    • Sydney South West Area Health Service
    • Department of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Mental Health Center, Liverpool Hospital, Level 1, Locked Bag 7103, Liverpool BC, NSW 1871, Australia. Tel.: +61 2 9616 4245; fax: +61 2 9601 2773.
    • ,
  • Rudi Črnčec

      Affiliations

    • Sydney South West Area Health Service

Received 17 March 2009 ,Revised 20 June 2009 ,Accepted 6 August 2009.

References 

  1. Leckman JF, Zhang H, Vitale A, Lahnin F, Lynch K, Bondi C. Course of tic severity in Tourette syndrome: the first two decades. Pediatrics. 1998;102:14–19
  2. Pappert EJ, Goetz CG, Louis ED, Blasucci L, Leurgans S. Objective assessments of longitudinal outcome in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology. 2003;61:936–940
  3. Abwender DA, Como PG, Kurlan R, Parry K, Fett KA, Cui L, et al. School problems in Tourette's syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:509–511
  4. Leckman JF, Bloch MH, Scahill L, King RA. Tourette syndrome: the self under siege. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:642–649
  5. Marsh R, Zhu H, Wang Z, Skudlarski P, Peterson BS. A developmental fMRI study of self-regulatory control in Tourette's syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:955–966
  6. Swerdlow NR, Karban B, Ploum Y, Sharp R, Geyer MA, Eastvold A. Tactile prepuff inhibition of startle in children with Tourette syndrome: in search of an “fMRI-friendly" startle paradigm. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;50:578–585
  7. Rivera-Navarro J, Cubo E, Almazán J. The diagnosis of Tourette's Syndrome: communication and impact. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;14:13–23
  8. Himle MB, Woods DW. An experimental evaluation of tic suppression and the tic rebound effect. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:1443–1451
  9. Kadejsö B, Gillberg C. Tourette's disorder: epidemiology and comorbidity in primary school children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;38:548–555
  10. Lanzi G, Zambrino CA, Termine C, Palestra M, Ferrari Ginevra O, Orcesi S, et al. Prevalence of tic disorders among primary school students in the city of Pavia, Italy. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89:45–47
  11. Kurlan R, Eapen V, Stern J, McDermott MP, Robertson MM. Bilineal transmission in Tourette's syndrome families. Neurology. 1994;44:2336
  12. Eapen V, Robertson MM, Zeitlin H, Kurlan R. Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in special education schools: a United Kingdom study. J Neurol. 1997;244:378–382
  13. Eapen V, Sachdev P. Managing tic disorders: an update on Tourette Syndrome. Med Today. 2008;9:14–21
  14. Lin H, Katsovich L, Ghebremichael M, Findley DB, Grantz H, Lombroso PJ, et al. Psychosocial stress predicts future symptom severities in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome and/or obsessive–compulsive disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007;48:157–166
  15. Spencer T, Biederman J, Harding M, O'Donnell D, Wilens T, Faraone S, et al. Disentangling the overlap between Tourette's disorder and ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1998;39:1037–1044
  16. Freeman RD, Fast DK, Burd L, Kerbeshian J, Robertson MM, Sandor P. An international perspective on Tourette syndrome: selected findings from 3,500 individuals in 22 countries. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:436–447
  17. Roessner V, Becker A, Banaschewski T, Freeman RD, Rothenberger A. Developmental psychopathology of children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome—impact of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;16:24–35
  18. Spencer T, Biederman J, Coffey B, Geller D, Wilens T, Faraone S. The 4-year course of tic disorders in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:842–847
  19. Peterson BS, Pine DS, Cohen P, Brook JS. Prospective, longitudinal study of tic, obsessive–compulsive, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in an epidemiological sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40:685–695
  20. Leckman JF. Phenomenology of tics and natural history of tic disorders. Brain Dev. 2006;99:1–16
  21. Brand N, Geenen R, Oudenhoven M, Lindenborn A, Lindenborn B, van der Ree A, et al. Cognitive functioning in children with Tourette's syndrome with and without co-morbid ADHD. J Pediatr Psychol. 2002;27:203–208
  22. Denckla MB. ADHD in Tourette Syndrome. In:  Olson LL editors. Tourette Syndrome: diagnosis, strategies, therapies, pathogenesis, and future research directions. Journal of Child Neurology. 21:2006;p. 637–638
  23. De Lange N, Oliver MAJ. Mothers' experiences of aggression in their Tourette's Syndrome children. Int J Adv Counselling. 2004;26:65–77
  24. Döpfner M, Rothenberger A. Behavior therapy in tic-disorders with co-existing ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;16:89–99
  25. Baron-Cohen S, Scahill VL, Izaguirre J, Hornsey H, Robertson MM. The prevalence of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in children and adolescents with autism: a large scale study. Psychol Med. 1999;29:1151–1159
  26. Burd L, Freeman RD, Klug MG, Kerbeshian J. Tourette Syndrome and learning disabilities. BMC Pediatr. 2005;5:34
  27. Leckman JF. Tourette's syndrome. Lancet. 2002;360:1577–1586
  28. Eapen V, Fox-Hiley P, Banerjee S, Robertson MM. Clinical features and associated psychopathology in a Tourette syndrome cohort. Acta Neurol Scand. 2004;109:255–260
  29. Hounie AG, do Rosario-Campos MC, Diniz JB, Shavitt RG, Ferrão YA, Lopes AC, et al. Obsessive–compulsive disorder in Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:22–38
  30. Coffey BJ, Biederman J, Smoller JW, Geller DA, Sarin P, Schwartz S, et al. Anxiety disorders and tic severity in juveniles with Tourette's disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:562–568
  31. Robertson MM, Trimble MR, Lees AJ. Self-injurious behaviour and the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a clinical study and review of the literature. Psychol Med. 1989;19:611–625
  32. Mathews CA, Waller J, Glidden D, Lowe TL, Herrera LD, Budman CL, et al. Self injurious behaviour in Tourette syndrome: correlates with impulsivity and impulse control. Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75:1149–1155
  33. Coffey B, Biederman J, Geller D, Spencer T, Kim G, Bellordre C, et al. Distinguishing illness severity from tic severity in children and adolescents with Tourette's Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:556–561
  34. Haiqun L, Katsovich L, Ghebremichael D, Findley HG, Lombroso PJ, King RA, et al. Psychosocial stress predicts future symptom severities in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome and/or obsessive compulsive disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007;48:157–166
  35. Cohen E, Sade M, Benarroch F, Pollak Y, Gross-Tsur V. Locus of control, perceived parenting style and symptoms of anxiety in children with Tourette syndrome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;17:299–305
  36. Robertson MM, Orth M. Behavioural and affective disorders in Tourette Syndrome. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:39–60
  37. Grados MA, Mathews CA. Tourette Syndrome Association International Consortium for Genetics. Latent class analysis of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome using comorbidities: clinical and genetic implications. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64:219–225
  38. Bawden HN, Stokes A, Camfield CS, Camfield PR, Salisbury S. Peer relationship problems in children with Tourette's disorder or diabetes mellitus. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1998;39:663–668
  39. Storch EA, Murphy TK, Chase RM, Keeley M, Goodman WK, Murray M, et al. Peer victimization in youth with Tourette's Syndrome and chronic tic disorder: relations with tic severity and internalizing symptoms. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2007;29:211–219
  40. Shady GA, Fulton WA, Champion LM. Tourette syndrome and education problems in Canada. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1988;12:263–265
  41. Stokes A, Bawden HN, Camfield PR, Backman JE, Dooley JM. Peer problems in Tourette's disorder. Pediatrics. 1991;87:936–942
  42. Kenney C, Kuo SH, Jimenez-Shahed J. Tourette's syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 2008;77:651–658
  43. Cooper C, Robertson MM, Livingston G. Psychological morbidity and caregiver burden in parents of children with Tourette's Disorder and psychiatric comorbidity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42:1370–1375
  44. Sukhodolsky DG, Scahill L, Zhang H, Peterson BS, King RA, Lombroso PJ, et al. Disruptive behavior in children with Tourette's syndrome: association with ADHD comorbidity, tic severity, and functional impairment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42:98–105
  45. Robertson MM, Stern JS. Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome: symptomatic treatment based on evidence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;9:60–75
  46. Dooley JM. Tic disorders in childhood. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2006;13:231–242
  47. Wand RR, Matazow GS, Shady GA, Furer PP, Staley D. Tourette syndrome: associated symptoms and most disabling features. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1993;17:271–275
  48. Kostanecka-Endress T, Banaschewski T, Kinkelbur J, Wüllner I, Lichtblau S, Cohrs S, et al. Disturbed sleep in children with Tourette syndrome: a polysomnographic study. J Psychosom Res. 2003;55:23–29
  49. Budman CL, Bruun RD, Park KS, Lesser M, Olson M. Explosive outbursts in children with Tourette's disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:1270–1276
  50. Bloch MH, Peterson BS, Scahill L, Otka J, Katsovich L, Zhang H, et al. Adulthood outcome of tic and obsessive–compulsive symptom severity in children with Tourette syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:65–69
  51. Olson LL. Tourette syndrome: diagnosis, strategies, therapies, pathogenesis, and future research directions. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:630–641
  52. Debes NM, Hjalgrim H, Skov L. The presence of comorbidity in Tourette syndrome increases the need for pharmacological Treatment. J Child Neurol. 2009;[Epub ahead of print]
  53. Carter AS, O'Donnell DA, Schultz RT, Scahill L, Leckman JF, Pauls DL. Social and emotional adjustment in children affected with Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: associations with ADHD and family functioning. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2000;41:215–223
  54. Shprecher D, Kurlan R. The management of tics. Mov Disord. 2009;24:15–24
  55. Robertson MM, Eapen V. The pharmacologic controversy of CNS stimulants in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1992;15:408–425
  56. Scahill L, Erenberg G, Berlin CM, Budman C, Coffey BJ, Jankovic J, et al. Contemporary assessment and pharmacotherapy of Tourette syndrome. NeuroRx. 2006;3:192–206
  57. Poncin Y. Drug and non-drug treatments of children with ADHD and tic disorders. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;16:78–88
  58. Budman CL, Gayer A, Lesser M, Shi Q, Bruun RD. An open-label study of the treatment efficacy of olanzapine for Tourette's disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:290–294
  59. March JS, Franklin ME, Leonard H, Garcia A, Moore P, Freeman J, et al. Tics moderate treatment outcome with sertraline but not cognitive–behavior therapy in pediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61:344–347
  60. Goetz CG, Tanner CM, Stebbins GT, Leipzig G, Carr WC. Adult tics in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: description and risk factors. Neurology. 1992;42:784–788
  61. Hoekstra PJ, Steenhuis MP, Troost PW, Korf J, Kallenberg CG, Minderaa RB. Relative contribution of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and tic severity to social and behavioral problems in tic disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004;25:272–279
  62. Singer HS. Discussing outcome in Tourette syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:103–105
  63. Azrin NH, Nunn RG. Habit-reversal: a method of eliminating nervous habits and tics. Behav Res Ther. 1973;11:619–628
  64. Piacentinim JC, Chang SW. Behavioral treatment for tic suppression: habit reversal training. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:227–233
  65. Verdellen CWJ, Keijsers GPJ, Cath DC, Hoogduin CAL. Exposure with response prevention versus habit reversal in Tourettes's syndrome: a controlled study. Behav Res Ther. 2004;42:501–511
  66. Carr JE, Chong IM. Habit reversal treatment of tic disorders: a methodological critique of the literature. Behav Modif. 2005;29:858–875
  67. Peterson AL, Azrin NH. Behavioral and pharmacological treatments for Tourette syndrome: a review. Appl Prev Psychol. 1993;2:231–242
  68. Wilhelm S, Deckersbach T, Coffey BJ, Bohne A. Habit reversal versus supportive psychotherapy for Tourette's disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:1175–1177
  69. Deckersbach T, Rauch S, Buhlmann U, Wilhelm S. Habit reversal versus supportive psychotherapy in Tourette's disorder: a randomized controlled trial and predictors of treatment response. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44:1079–1090
  70. Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures, Division of Clinical Psychology . Training in and dissemination of empirically-validated psychological treatments: report and recommendations. Clin Psychol. 1995;48:3–23
  71. Verdellen CWJ, Cees AL, Hoogduin MD, Keijsers GPJ. Tic suppression in the treatment of Tourette's syndrome with exposure therapy: the rebound phenomenon reconsidered. Mov Disord. 2007;22:1601–1606
  72. Verdellen CWJ, Hoogduin CAL, Kato BS, Keijsers GPJ, Cath DC, Hoijtink HB. Habituation of premonitory sensations during exposure and response prevention treatment in Tourette's syndrome. Behav Modif. 2008;32:215–227
  73. Piacentini JC, Walkup JT. Comprehensive Behavioural Intervention for Tics (CBIT) Study: background and outcomes. In: AACAP 55th Annual Meeting, Chicago, USA, October 29–November 2. 2008;
  74. Lombroso PJ, Scahill L. Tourette syndrome and obsessive compulsive disorder. Brain Dev. 2008;30:231–237
  75. Scahill L, Sukhodolsky D, Bearss K, Findley D, Hamrin V, Rains A. A randomized trial of parent management training in children with tic disorders and disruptive behavior. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:50–656
  76. Serketich WJ, Dumas JE. The effectiveness of behavioural parent training to modify antisocial behaviour in children. A meta analysis. Behav Ther. 1996;27:171–186
  77. Eapen V, Robertson MM. Clinical correlates of Tourette's disorder across cultures: a comparative study between the United Arab Emirates and the United Kingdom. Primary Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;10:103–107
  78. Robertson MM, Banerjee S, Eapen V, Fox-Hiley P. Obsessive compulsive behaviour and depressive symptoms in young people with Tourette syndrome. A controlled study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;11:261–265
  79. Gaze C, Kepley H, Walkup J. Co-occurring psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:657–664

PII: S0022-3999(09)00326-2

doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.08.003

Journal of Psychosomatic Research
Volume 67, Issue 6 , Pages 525-532 , December 2009

Article Tools